Team:Peking R/HumanPractice

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   <p class="notbookmaintitle">  &nbsp;  Review of Antibiotic Use and Potential Harms</p>
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   <p class="notbookmaintitle">  &nbsp;&nbsp;  &nbsp;  &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;  Human Practice Home</p>
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   <p>Since their discovery, antibiotics  have been considered as the primary solution to most infectious diseases and  have saved billions of lives. However, the abuse of antibiotics, combined with  the widespread use of antibiotic resistance genes as selection markers, have  lead to a worldwide hazard to public health - bacterial antibiotic resistance.  It has become much easier to find antibiotic-resistant bacteria around us<a href="#r1">[1]</a>.  Increasing reports regarding superbugs - bacteria that are resistant to most  common antibiotics - is also raising public concern. They have posed great  threats to public health by increasing the possibilities of infectious disease  outbreaks, such as the recent <em>E</em>.<em>coli</em> outbreak in Europe a few months  ago. <em>E.U</em>. has reported 25,000 deaths  caused by bacterial infection, which has even outsmarted newly invented  antibiotics<a href="#r2">[2]</a>. (See <a href="http://blogs.nature.com/news/2011/06/europes_e_coli_outbreak_time_f.html">here</a> for a full version of the report) It  is widely believed that the abuse of antibiotics accounts for the spread of  antibiotic-resistant bacteria. However, the fact that laboratory work also  significantly contributes to this process cannot be ignored. Our Human Practice  focuses on the treatment of used or excessive antibiotic-resistant bacteria,  and discusses feasible precautions against the spread of antibiotic-resistant  microbes.</p>
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   <p>Inappropriate use of  antibiotics is a major cause of bacterial antibiotic resistance. The public  used to depend on antibiotics to treat infections regardless of whether they  are of viral origins or may be treated by means other than antibiotics. To make  matters worse, in many countries, the public has access to antibiotics without  prescriptions. As the public does not strictly follow instructions at all times,  bacterial antibiotic resistance is further aggravated. The challenge in  confronting antibiotic resistance lies in the possibility that even if antibiotic use is reduced, resistant clones would remain  persistent and cannot be rapidly outcompeted by their susceptible relatives<a href="#r3">[3]</a>. </p>
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    Besides treatment of  infections, antibiotics are also widely used in agriculture, where they are  added to food for animals to prevent infectious diseases and promote growth. It  is relatively more difficult for the public, however, to establish the  correlation between antibiotic use on farm animals and potential hazards to  public health. Despite the lack of statistical data confirming the scale of  antibiotic use, it is reasonable to estimate that the majority of antibiotics  and related products are used in agriculture for their cheapness and safety to  livestock. Besides, it is also unlikely that farmers will carefully control the  dosage of antibiotics applied to animals. Consequentially, excessive amounts of  antibiotics selects for bacteria with stronger resistance, and the related  genes may be transferred to other microbes through horizontal gene transfer<a href="#r4">[4]</a>,  which may then pose greater challenges to biosafety.<br />
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  One of the primary  goals of synthetic biology is to render the design of biological systems easier  for more researchers to take part in the design process. Great efforts have  been made to develop toolkits which are easy and convenient for users without  professional backgrounds in biology<a href="#r1">[5]</a>. The extensive use of such  toolboxes has attracted researchers from other disciplines such as engineering  and computer sciences, contributing cross-disciplinary skills and techniques to  conventional biological sciences. However, the participation of researchers  lacking systematic training in biosafety inevitably increases the risk of  biohazards, including:</p>
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    1. High possibility that in the near future organizations of  non-research origins will be able to   produce recombinant or mutant species in a large scale, probably  threatening the environment and public safety.<br />
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  2. Improper treatment of microbes and corresponding DNA  fragments in the laboratory by researchers unaware of biosafety.</p>
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  <p> Researchers,  being too familiar with antibiotic-resistant bacteria to treat them with  caution, may also negatively affect public safety even if they have indeed  undergone professional training in biosafety. Common treatments, such as  pouring solutions or medium containing microbes into the sewer or throwing them  into garbage cans, may expose antibiotic-resistant bacteria to the environment,  increasing the risk of transferring antibiotic-resistant genes to wildtype  microbes. A more subtle form of risk is the ever wider application of  Polymerase Chain Reaction(PCR), which allows microbial DNA fragments to be  rapidly replicated and promotes formation of mutant or recombinant DNA via  error-prone replication<a href="#r6">[6]</a>.</p>
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   <p class="July">reference:</p>
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   <p>[1]<a name="r1" id="r1"></a>1. Livermore, D.M. Has the era of untreatable infections arrived? <em>J. Antimicrob.  Chemother</em> <strong>64 </strong>(suppl 1), i29–36 (2009). <br />
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   <p>[1]</p>
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     [2].<a name="r2" id="r2"></a> As <em>E. coli </em>Outbreak Recedes, New Questions Come to the Fore. <em>Science</em> <strong>333</strong>, 27 (2011).<br />
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     [3]. <a name="r3" id="r3"></a>Andersson, D.I., and Hughes, D., Persistence of antibiotic resistance in  bacterial populations. <em>FEMS Microbiol Rev</em>(2011).<em>­</em>(Accepted Article)<br />
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     [4].<a name="r4" id="r4"></a> Wiedenbeck, J., and Cohan, F.M., Origins of  Bacterial Diversity through Horizontal Genetic Transfer and Adaptation to New  Ecological Niches. <em>FEMS Microbiol Rev</em>(2011).<em>­</em>(Accepted Article) <br />
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     [5].<a name="r5" id="r5"></a> Schmidt, M., Diffusion of synthetic biology: a challenge to biosafety. <em>Syst Synth Biol</em> <strong>2</strong>, 1–6 (2008).<br />
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     [6].<a name="r6" id="r6"></a> Bügl, H., Danner, J.P., Molinari, R.J., Mulligan, J.T., Park, H., Bas  Reichert, Roth, D.A., Wagner, R., Budowle, B., Scripp, R.M., Smith, J.A.L.,  Steele, S.J., Church, G., and Endy, D., DNA Synthesis and Biological Security. <em>Nat Biotech</em> <strong>25</strong>, 627-629  (2007).</p>
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        <p class="mainbody">Recent ''E.coli'' outbreak in Europe has reminded us the fact that '''bacterial antibiotic resistance''' has been a worldwide hazard to public health. Though antibiotics have been considered as the primary solution to most infectious diseases and have saved billions of lives since their discovery, more and more bacterium become resistant against them. Scientists have to struggle to develop new kinds of antibiotics while how long these new antibiotics could keep effective remains doubtful. Besides, it is quit common to find bacteria pollution on antibiotic medium, even on multi-antibiotic medium, in microbiology lab. We must do something to improve this terrible situation.
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In order to investigate the extent to which laboratories understand biosafety issues regarding antibiotic usage, we have carried out a survey involving about 150 participants, for more information, please click 'investigation'.
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      <th colspan="4" bgcolor="#E9FEF0" class="July" scope="row">CAUSE</th>
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Revision as of 07:37, 5 October 2011

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          Human Practice Home

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

reference:

[1]

 
Current situation

 

Recent ''E.coli'' outbreak in Europe has reminded us the fact that '''bacterial antibiotic resistance''' has been a worldwide hazard to public health. Though antibiotics have been considered as the primary solution to most infectious diseases and have saved billions of lives since their discovery, more and more bacterium become resistant against them. Scientists have to struggle to develop new kinds of antibiotics while how long these new antibiotics could keep effective remains doubtful. Besides, it is quit common to find bacteria pollution on antibiotic medium, even on multi-antibiotic medium, in microbiology lab. We must do something to improve this terrible situation. In order to investigate the extent to which laboratories understand biosafety issues regarding antibiotic usage, we have carried out a survey involving about 150 participants, for more information, please click 'investigation'.

Current Situation
       
       
       
CAUSE
       
       
       
SOLUTIONS
       
       
       
       
       

 

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